The History of Assistive Technology in the Classroom

By Andrew Hazard

While the digital era has brought forth many crucial advancements in assistive technology in the classroom, equally important are the prior advancements that laid the foundation for what we have today. Various inventions throughout history, in ancient times and over the past few centuries, have greatly contributed to improving accessibility for students with developmental disabilities. Examining the history of assistive technology allows us to gain a better understanding of how we’ve achieved the accessibility we have in the present and provides us with greater insight into older, potentially overlooked technology that still serves a valuable purpose in helping disadvantaged individuals, particularly in a classroom setting.

Several forms of assistive technology have precursors that originated in ancient times. In ancient Egypt and Greece, for example, individuals who struggled with walking had assistance from primitive canes [5]. In the Roman Empire, those with more severe afflictions used very early versions of prosthetic limbs made from wood, metal and other materials that were shaped into replacements for legs. Both examples obviously help people walk when they otherwise may experience difficulty, but they also provide a way for such individuals to attend classes without the setback of their physical affliction preventing them from doing so.

The earliest modern examples of assistive technology involved focusing on specific hurdles via the use of specialized equipment. In 1808, an Italian inventor, Pellegrino Turri, built the world’s first typewriter as a way to help his blind friend write in a legible manner [3]. In 1824, French educator Louis Braille, who lost his sight at a young age, created a raised point alphabet, which we know today as the Braille alphabet, a writing system for use by the blind and visually impaired [2] [5]. This was later introduced to the public in 1829. Braille was properly introduced in the United States in 1860, when it started being taught at the St. Louis School for the Blind. Despite the spreading use of Braille by the visually impaired, it was rather slow to produce. This was eventually solved in 1892, with the invention of the first Braille typewriter by Franklin Haven Hall. Further advancements in Braille technology during the 20th century led to the portable Perkins Braille Typewriter, ensuring Braille’s continued popularity as a method of reading and writing for visually impaired people in the classroom and outside of it.

Other forms of assistive technology were initially developed around the turn of the 20th century. In 1886, Herman Hollerith devised a method of transporting data from the 1890 census using punch cards. This was meant to aid individuals with cognitive processing disabilities, such as himself [3]. Punch cards have also seen use in the classroom, mostly as a way of motivating students, but have historically been used as a way to teach computer programming. Hollerith went on to found the Tabulating Machine Company, which changed its name to IBM in 1924. Also developed in the late 1800s were the first hearing aids [1]. The earliest versions were ear trumpets, which directed sound into the ear after capturing it like a funnel [5]. In the early 20th century, this technology was further refined for easier use. In 1916, the Western Electric Model 2A hearing aid was created by Harvey Fletcher of Bell Laboratories [3]. Bell Labs also invented transistor hearing aids, created by John Bardeed, William Shockley and Walter Brattain in 1948. Earlier hearing aids used vacuum tubes that were especially fragile and could easily become hot. Meanwhile, transistor-based hearing aids served as an effective replacement since they were smaller, cheaper, produced less heat, used less battery power, and had less distortion [2]. By 1952, Raytheon engineer, Norman Krim, created his own transistor hearing aids that could be worn entirely inside the ear or behind it. Only a few years later, behind the ear models from other companies, like Zenith, included external receivers and weighed less than an ounce, further reducing any potential strain during use [2]. Additionally, the evolving functionality and increasing ease of use has made hearing aids a valuable tool for students who are hard of hearing, allowing them to hear classroom instructions more easily.

This century also brought forth wholly new forms of assistive technology. The Readphon Talking Book was invented in 1934, allowing audio books to be played on phonographs [3]. This was followed up the next year by the first issue of the Talking Book Bulletin, published by the American Foundation for the Blind for the sake of providing books on tape. In 1936, the electronic speech synthesizer was created, another spawn of Bell Labs that was dubbed a “Voder”, meaning “voice coder”. In 1975, Ray Kurzweil invented the Kurzweil Reading Machine, which allowed individuals to scan books and have them read aloud. Jim Thatcher invented the IBM Screen Reader for DOS in 1986, for use by visually impaired employees [3]. Other technologies like specialized wheelchairs for individuals who are unable to use their arms and the Adaptive Firmware Card, which allows for easier use of a keyboard for those with limited mobility, helped revolutionize assistance for those with physical disabilities. In the late 20th century, more accessibility-enhancing inventions emerged. Examples include computer text-to-speech programs, devices that let someone communicate simply by moving their eyes, and Frequency Modulated Systems for use by individuals with auditory impairment in loud environments, such as schools [1].

Schools themselves, and by extension buildings broadly, also became more accessible to those with disabilities. In 1961, the American National Standard Institute, Inc. released “American Standard Specifications for Making Buildings Accessible to, and Usable by, the Physically Handicapped (the A117.1 Barrier Free Standard)” [2]. Produced by the University of Illinois, this document served as a baseline for future access codes that improved navigability for physically disadvantaged people. This, along with movements in support of those with disabilities, eventually prompted colleges, such as Michigan State University, to remove physical barriers that impeded affected individuals [2]. MSU made further strides in accessibility when it established the Office of Programs for Handicapped Students (now the Resource Center for Persons with Disabilities) in 1972. This was one of the first programs like it in the United States and it created services for various residence halls (starting with Owen Hall) that made them more readily accessible. Upon their inception, these disability services focused primarily on the needs of students with mobility issues, blindness, deafness and other clearly visible disabilities, due to necessary accommodations for such individuals being the most easily identifiable [2].

Federal legislation has also played a vital role in ensuring access to assistive technology for people with developmental disabilities. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 promised the provision of assistive technology services and equipment for those with disabilities, and guaranteed disabled students the ability to study in educational settings like all other students, with their accommodations in place [4]. The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act further expanded on those promises by better addressing assistive technology requirements and stressing the importance of such devices and services in public education. However, the most sweeping legislation relating to helping individuals with developmental disabilities had yet to come. In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act enshrined into law “unrestricted access to public buildings, equal opportunity in employment, equal access to government services and employment opportunities” for all Americans with disabilities [2]. The law also prohibited discrimination on the basis of someone’s disability in all public aspects of life, including school, in an effort to further provide opportunities for individuals with disabilities equal to those who are unaffected. Additionally, access to any government programs, as well as reasonable accommodations and building modifications in the workplace were also guaranteed. It cannot be understated how impactful this guarantee of civil rights has been for people with disabilities.

In the present, we have many, mostly digital forms of assistive technology for developmentally disabled individuals. However, it is important to remember the many inventions, services, and rights afforded to such people prior to our modern digital age. Not only may these provide viable alternatives to modern tech, but they also allow us to recognize the many trials and tribulations humanity has gone through to provide disadvantaged people with a fighting chance in the classroom, as well as in life in general.

References

[1] Gonzalez, Amy & White, Jennifer. (2023). The Evolution of Assistive Technology: Advancing Access and Equity – Then, Now, and Next. Disability Employment TA Center. https://aoddisabilityemploymenttacenter.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Evolution_of_AT_Then_Now_and_Next.pdf.

[2] MSU Libraries. (2023). Advancing Accessibility: A Timeline. Michigan State University. https://lib.msu.edu/exhibits/advancing-accessibility/timeline.

[3] History of Accessible Technology. Stanford University. https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/2005-06/accessibility/firstwave.html.

[4] Abu-Alghayth, Khalid & Arishi, Abdullatif. Assistive Technology for Students with Disabilities: A Review of History, Theories, Regulation, and Practices. Migration Letters. https://share.google/pweYAX2qZ60WPZ6lp.

[5] History of Assistive Technology. EnableMe Kenya. https://www.enableme.ke/en/article/history-of-assistive-technology-11697.