Post World War II Reconstruction and Disability Services in Japan

By Andrew Hazard

Upon the end of World War II, the defeated Axis Powers fell under occupation by the Allied Powers, who sought to rebuild the aggressive, totalitarian states into stable nations that would be cooperative on the post-war world stage. This, of course, included the former Empire of Japan, which was occupied primarily by the United States from 1945 (following Japan’s surrender) until 1952. American occupation led to a thorough dismantlement of Japan’s military apparatus, the restructuring of the Japanese economy, the trying of various military and political leaders during the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, and the introduction of a new constitution written by the United States that established democratic institutions and severely limited the powers of the Japanese Emperor so as to make it an effectively ceremonial role. This was all for the purpose of creating a new Japanese state that was stable, free, and could not pose a threat to world peace ever again. Amidst all this societal upheaval, Japan was experiencing many other changes that often go overlooked. This article will specifically focus on how disability services evolved in Japan during the post-war era.

Due to the devastation of World War II, many Japanese citizens lost their homes, their jobs, easy access to food, and other basic necessities. Understandably, this led to various civil movements that demanded specific accommodations, among which was a movement to provide aid to disabled people. Seeking more effective treatment and more fast-paced rehabilitation, tuberculosis patients at the National Sanitarium created an organization to make their demands known. The organization went national in 1948, adopting the name, Japanese Patients' Federation [1]. The next year, patients who had recovered from tuberculosis began setting up after-care centers in Kumamoto and Fukuoka. Soon after, similar facilities opened in cities like Tokyo,  Hyogo and Okayama. Together, these after-care centers became a part of the National Organization of Sheltered Workshops, or Zencolo.

Organizations meant to address specific disabilities were also formed at this time. The Japan Federation of the Blind was created in 1948. Their initial goal was to push for the enactment of a welfare law that would specifically address the issues of the visually impaired. However, this did not come to fruition, mainly due to a similar law for the physically disabled being more heavily prioritized. Nonetheless, disabled individuals received other forms of accommodation (with a little help from Helen Keller visiting Japan), such as an employment promotion week being set up [1]. In 1949, the All Japan Federation of the Deaf was created. They demanded that the discrimination clause in the civil law be amended to apply to deaf individuals, as well as those with other disabilities. Both of these federations have been very active in supporting the Japanese disability movement, working closely since 1958 to organize the Japan Association of Disabled Veterans, Japanese Federation of Organizations of the Physically Disabled, and other groups [1]. Another collaboration, this time alongside the orthopedic disabled persons’ movement and with the aid of the Mutual Aid Association of the Railway Workers, led to the creation of the National Railways Federation of Disabled Workers' Organizations. This was done in order to protest various pension benefits being rolled back. In 1953, the Mutual Aid Association began publishing their “Rehabilitation” newsletter, to bring greater awareness to the plight of disabled individuals in post-war Japan.

In 1947, a magazine called “Shinonome” was started by graduates from Komei School for Physically Disabled Children in Tokyo. Subsequently, "Green Grass" Organization was formed by some of the magazine’s participants as a way of protesting how people’s lives are controlled to such a strong degree in institutions such as theirs [1]. This movement grew even more as it brought up the problems with mercy killing, particularly when it came to disabled children. Movements like this encouraged the Japanese government to take action, enacting the nation’s first disability law, the Law for the Welfare of Physically Disabled Persons, in 1949. The law sought to provide people who had bodily impairments with care in rehabilitation centers and other services [3]. However, funding was scarce, leading to many eligible patients not receiving the care they were entitled to. Eligibility to begin with was somewhat limited, applying only to those with impairments to their vision, hearing and mobility, as well as those with central nervous system disorders and missing limbs. This was likely intended to include primarily war veterans with disabilities related to combat injuries. As a result, people with heart defects, internal wounds, head injuries and other conditions were not covered under the law’s definition of “physical disability.”

Concerning intellectual disabilities, JAPMR, an organization for institutions supporting individuals with such issues, was re-founded after being inactive during World War II. In order to provide more targeted support to children with intellectual disabilities, parents formed JPAMR (different from the organization above) in 1952. This was the first Japanese organization created by the parents of disabled children, and has since become the largest such group in the country, with the association boasting “1995 chapters with 410,000 members” [1]. Groups of parents with children suffering from orthopedic disabilities locally organized their activities throughout the 1950s, eventually leading to the formation of the National Federation of Organizations of Parents of Orthopedically Disabled Children in 1961. Both of the aforementioned parents’ organizations poured their resources into building specialized schools for their children in order to more effectively address their specific issues and make up for the fact that such institutions had been few and far between in Japan.

Since the early 20th century, Japanese citizens had long advocated for compulsory education for children with disabilities, especially in the form of a special school system that could better meet their needs. For blind and deaf children, this wish was granted with the enactment of the School Education Law of 1947. When it came to children with orthopedic and intellectual disabilities, however, they would have to wait another 31 years for specialized schools to be established, as the law did not provide a date by which the policy had to be acted upon. In the meantime, several organizations concerned with aiding disabled people held joint national conferences to determine other ways that aid could be provided across Japan. This eventually prompted the enactment of multiple laws in 1961, including the Physically Handicapped Persons' Employment Promotion Law, as well as a law concerning the welfare of intellectually disabled individuals [1]. Orthopedically disabled people finally received compulsory education in 1979, but the long delay created controversy as it had given enough time for public sentiment to begin turning against the concept of special schools. Many refused to enroll on principle.

Amidst Japan’s modernization and rapid economic growth in the 1950s, many large industries released pollutant byproducts. Some of the first major events that drew public attention to the dangers of pollution in the post-war era were the discovery of Morinaga milk being poisoned with arsenic in 1955 and the rise of Minamata disease (a neurological condition) the following year, due to mercury poisoning [1]. This was followed soon after by several people in Toyama prefecture developing debilitating bone pain and fractures, due to contaminated water discharged by mining companies. At the same time, oil refining industries in the city of Yokkaichi released air pollution that caused asthma among much of the populace. Further chemical poisoning from Thalidomide and drug-induced Sumon disease (a neurological conditional resulting in paralysis, vision loss, and nerve damage) affected many Japanese babies. On top of that, babies who had been born prematurely, due to the aforementioned causes, often developed retinopathy, muscular contractions, and other deformities that were later ruled results of medical malpractice during several lawsuits on the matters. Seeking retribution, affected victims and their supporters organized groups such as the Association to Protect Morinaga Milk Poisoning Babies, the Citizens' Assembly to Eliminate Pollution and Support the Minamata Disease Law Suit, the Parents' Organization for Congenitary Abnormal Children (Parents' Association to Open-up Children's Future), and the National Sumon Association [1].

While many Japanese people with more common disabilities, adults and children alike, were able to seek treatment and support, others with officially unrecognized conditions were often left by the wayside. For the most part, the national government focused solely on specific disabilities when enacting laws and providing support, meaning that disabilities broadly were not adequately addressed. This led to the formation of many parents’ organizations throughout the 1960s to address their children’s specific needs. These groups included the Parents' Association for Children with Speech Impairment, the Organization to Protect Children with Heart Disease, the Japan Muscular Dystrophy Association, the Parents' Association for Congenitary Abnormal Children, the National Association of Sisters and Brothers who have Mentally and Physically Handicapped Siblings, the National Association to Protect Children with Severe Mental and Physical Disabilities, the National Federation of Families' Organizations with Mental Illness, and the Parents' Association for Autistic Children [1]. Other organizations to address specific disabilities were formed at the time, including the Central Association to Protect Children from Polio, the Japan Friends' Association for Person with Rheumatism, the All Japan Association for the Visually Impaired, and the National Organization to Protect Persons with Nephritis and Kidney Diseases. As these organizations began campaigning for better care, many eventually realized that they would be more successful if they combined their efforts and formed national coalitions. This led to the creation of the National Association for the Welfare of Mentally and Physically Disabled Children as a part of the National Social Welfare Association in 1965. The following year, parents’ groups formed their own National Coalition of Parents' Association for Mentally and Physically Disabled Children. In order to provide kids, no matter what their disability, with training and counseling, the coalition launched the National Welfare Foundation for Mentally and Physically Disabled Children [1].

Initial post-war disability care was focused around institutions, primarily due to long waiting lists that led to a severe lack of services for children at home. However, the culture began shifting towards community care after the 1964 Paralympic Games and the 1965 Pan-Pacific Rehabilitation Conference, both held in Tokyo, prompted a change in Japanese social welfare policy. The parents’ movement almost immediately began building non-residential community centers for children with disabilities and began pushing for their children to be integrated into kindergartens and child care centers with children who didn’t have disabilities [1]. In response to demands for further support in community-based services, the government offered support to physically disabled individuals wanting to engage in community activities, supplied technical aids, created social adaptation training programs, and created social welfare centers. At this time, an initiative was started by disabled people and volunteers to make towns more accessible to wheelchairs. Many individuals who required wheelchairs were unable to effectively move around town by themselves due to sidewalk corner curbs and other obstructions. The campaign advocated enough that several towns and cities began producing wheelchair access guides. The campaign expanded further after the National Wheelchair Citizen's Assembly held a meeting in Sendai City to address the issue of creating an accessible environment for wheelchair users, as well as those with other disabilities [1]. Thus, the campaign for accessibility in cities now encompassed disabled individuals in general.

In the late 1960s, the disability movement also began demanding various rights, among which was the right to education. A proposal was made during the Educational Study Meeting of the Japan Teacher's Union in 1966 that would establish a national private organization tasked with giving disabled children a proper education [1]. This organization would be led by parents, institutions workers, physicians, and teachers specialized in educating disabled children. In response to this proposal, the National Study Group on Issues of Disabled Persons was set up the next year. They concluded that the issue of welfare for disabled children was one of rights, placing that idea at the forefront of their campaign. The study group then held the National Assembly to Protect the Living and Rights of Disabled Persons and formed the National Conference to Support the Life and Rights of Disabled Persons [1].

Another issue disabled individuals in Japan greatly fought for was the right to work. A mandated employment quota system was demanded by organizations advocating for disabled people. This demand was partially met by the 1960 Physically Handicapped Persons' Employment Promotion Law, but the law fell short by only covering certain disabled individuals and setting a low employment quota that was not legally binding. Outraged by this, several organizations put pressure on the government to amend the law. In 1976, new amendments were made that created responsibility for the employment of disabled individuals, established a quota of 1.5%, and levied companies that violated the terms of the law. A further amendment in 1982 extended the law to include all disabled people [1].

Greater awareness was brought to the plight of disabled individuals during the International Year of Disabled Persons in 1981. One immediate effect this had was bringing various competing disability organizations closer together, leading to the formation of the Japan Council for International Year of Disabled Persons (JCIYDP). The following year, some members of JCIYDP invited their American counterparts to participate in the Japan-USA Seminars on Independent Living of Disabled Persons. This inspired disabled people in Japan to start their own local independent living movements and help develop group homes for such individuals [1]. This also created a renewed push to initiate income maintenance for disabled people. Going back to the 1960s, polio and cerebral palsy patients who were not gainfully employed started the National Coalition to Establish Income Maintenance. When JCIYDP was established, this became their first area of focus. Their efforts led to the 1981 amendment of the National Pension Law to provide basic disability pension.

It is worth noting that this increasingly rights-based model of activism for disability welfare, that started in Japan in the late 1960s, was adopted to emulate similar efforts in the United States. Specifically, the Japanese disability movement wanted to learn from American leaders in disability rights, such as Ed Roberts and Judy Heumann, who traveled to Japan to teach local organizations about disability rights, emphasizing independent living and equal physical access. As previously discussed, these two issues have been addressed, but due to Japan being a nation which emphasizes difference, the rights-based model poses “tremendous challenges to Japanese political, legal, and social norms” [2]. As a result, Japan has yet to implement a broad reaching civil rights policy, like that in the United States. However, Japan did open itself up to further reform when it signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006, the first ever international treaty pertaining to the human rights of those with disabilities. This treaty is often seen as the impetus for a new wave of activism on behalf of disabled individuals in Japan. This activism, in turn, led to new laws relating to disabilities, such as the 2013 Law to Suppress Disability-related Discrimination. This law brought the Japanese legal definition of a disabled person more in line with the language of the convention, stating, “A person with a physical, mental, psychic (including developmental disabilities) or other impairment of physical or mental functions and who suffers substantial and lasting limitations in his or her daily life and social activities, due to the disability or social barriers” [4]. Its two main points were prohibiting discrimination based on one’s disability, and providing reasonable accommodations, particularly in the workplace. This ensures that disabled individuals from Japan have a greater ability to fight for equal treatment.

In the wake of World War II, Japan began enacting various laws, at an albeit gradual pace, that sought to make up for the lack of care previously provided. Encouraged by many disability-specific organizations and the overall disability movement, the Japanese government made monumental changes in healthcare, education, work, pay, accommodations, and general welfare for disabled people. Simultaneously, various communities have worked together to provide easier lives for affected individuals, with those individuals themselves heavily included in such efforts. There is of course always room for improvement, but Japan’s progress in providing disability services should be massively celebrated.

References

[1] Disability Information Resources. (1997). Disability Movement: Trends in Major Disability Specific Organizations. Japanese Society for Rehabilitation of Persons with Disabilities. https://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/resource/z00009/z0000903.html.

[2] Patterson, L., (2015). Rights Enabled: The Disability Revolution from the US, to Germany and Japan, to the United Nations, Disability Studies Quarterly 35(4). doi: https://doi.org/10.18061/.v35i4.4991.

[3] Bookman, Mark R. (2025). Disability Publics: Making Accessibility in Modern Japan - Ch. 2: Wartime Welfare and Postwar Policymaking (1937–1957). Oxford Academic. https://academic.oup.com/book/61727/chapter/541568995.

[4] japanpastandpresent.org. (2022). Disability Legislation Timeline. Japan Past & Present. https://japanpastandpresent.org/en/projects/disability-studies-in-japan/research/disability-legislation-timeline.